Developmentally Appropriate Teaching Strategies

Today’s classrooms are becoming more and more diverse with students that have disabilities and those that come from different cultures. It is important for educators to ensure that their teaching strategies are appropriate for all of the children in their classroom. When it comes to the classroom there can be many cultural challenges that educators will have to address to ensure that all students are growing and developing appropriately. Educators need to make sure that they are capable of addressing each of their students’ needs individually in order for the students to be able to succeed.Educators must be able to define and address any cultural challenges in the classroom in order for each and every one of their students to be successful. It is important for educators to be able to identify challenges they may have when using different teaching strategies to ensure students are getting the appropriate education. Effective teaching strategies help students to learn. Si nce not all children learn in the same ways it is important to be flexible and willing to change a strategy so that it meets everyone’s needs.Some educators may be unsure of their ability to reach and teach culturally diverse children. Some may even express reservations about their ability to teach students that are from a culture that is different from their own (Chisholm, 1994). One challenge involved with ensuring that teaching strategies are appropriate for culturally diverse children is effective communication. Educators must assess their students to see what level of development they are at. Communicating with parents is a great way to learn more about the students as individuals and their cultural background.Teachers can communicate with parents to find out what their goals for their child are, find out more about what their personality is like and even some of their favorite things to do. When educators understand more about each child individually then they can apply the appropriate teaching strategies. If the children seem uninterested in an assignment, the educator can adjust it to get them more interested and willing to complete the assignment. Overcoming stereotyping is a challenge educators can encounter when it comes to ensuring that teaching strategies are appropriate for culturally diverse children.Some educators may compare one child to another child that comes from the same cultural background and use the same teaching strategy. One way to overcome this is to make sure that educators know each of the students individually instead of comparing one to another or relying on stereotyping. â€Å"To truly engage students, we must reach out to them in ways that are culturally and linguistically responsive and appropriate, and we must examine the cultural assumptions and stereotypes we bring into the classroom that may hinder interconnectedness.† (Teaching Tolerance, 1991)Once they know more about each of the students then they can avo id stereotyping and adjust their teaching strategy to meet the individual needs of the students in the classroom. Another challenge educator’s encounter is the cultural gap that is between students and teachers. It is important for educators to understand that some culturally diverse children may need things explained to them in a different way for them to gain an understanding.If educators took the time to learn about the various cultures that are present in their school then they could possibly bridge the cultural gap between them and their students. Educators can learn more about their students culture by asking their students questions and getting to their level in order to gain an understanding of their cultures. Once this is accomplished they will have a better understanding on which teaching strategies to use with the students. People will often use nonverbal communication through behaviors like facial expressions, body language, gestures, etc.These behaviors are viewe d as a sociological framework called symbolic interactionism. Children that come from a different culture will more than likely have different ways of communicating nonverbally. For example, in some cultures it is considered to be disrespectful to look someone in the eye when they are talking to you. Most teachers expect you to look at them when they are talking to you so that they can see that you are paying attention and understand. There are certain behaviors that are associated with different cultures that are considered to be appropriate.â€Å"Although different cultures may share similar goals for children, the methods and practices that are implemented to instill those values in children may differ dramatically. † (Bojcyk, 2012, sec. 2. 2) For example, some cultures believe that children should be seen but not heard. Children that come from a culture that believes that may be more withdrawn and quiet in the classroom. Piaget’s preoperational stage involves child ren from two years old to seven years old. Children in this stage can mentally represent events and objects and engage in symbolic play.They are only able to focus on one aspect of a problem and their thoughts and communications are usually egocentric (Recker, 1999). Children from culturally diverse backgrounds may mentally represent objects and events differently than the other children. It is important for educators to provide children with other views that may conflict with their own in order for them to gain an understanding of others views. Doing this can help them in their development and is an important step in increasing their cognitive development.When educators provide their students with opportunities to work with others, the students will encounter different views of the other students and learn to look at things from someone else’s point of view. â€Å"Although individuals within a pluralistic society must learn to accept their own ethnic identity and to become comfortable with it, they must also learn to function effectively within other ethnic cultures and to respond positively to individuals who belong to other ethnic groups.They also need to learn how to interact with members of outside groups and how to resolve conflicts with them. † (Banks, 2006) Providing children with activities or assignments that allow them to work together with students from different cultural backgrounds can help in teaching them conflict resolution. At the same time they learn to see things from other points of view and this can help increase their cognitive development and ensure they are successful in school.

One word essay: Harmony Essay

Confucius once said â€Å"Let the states of equilibrium and Harmony exist in perfection, and a happy order will prevail throughout heaven and earth, and all things will be nourished and flourish.† Harmony is defined as the state of being in agreement or concord. Singapore is a bustling metropolis and a multi-racial society, where people of different ethnic groups co-exist and lived harmoniously. Singapore has thrived rapidly because of our openness to international trade flow, knowledge and cultures, all of which have brought us opportunities and progress. As Singapore moves towards a more diverse landscape, it is important that Singaporeans continue to embrace diversity and live in harmony. Singapore is also a cosmopolitan city , just like many other dynamic cities of the world. Singaporeans also need to go beyond understanding the main races to respecting all people regardless of race, language or religion, who live and work in Singapore – for the harmony, prosperity and progress of the nation. The nation’s turbulent and tumultuous history is a coherent testimony to the significance of racial harmony. The day commemorates the communal riots that broke out on 21 July 1964 between Malays and Chinese during a Muslim procession celebrating the Prophet Muhammad’s birthday, which led to 36 dead and 590 injured. That is why we make it a point to commemorate Racial Harmony Day every year on 21 July. George Washington once said â€Å"Cultivate peace and harmony with all.† More importantly, throughout the year, we must strive to better understand the multifarious myriad of cultures and practices, and form strong friendships across the communities. These relationships that bind us as a nation will help us in difficult and dark times. Disharmony will also lead to schism , enmity and discord such as in Sri Lanka or Northern Ireland which kindles hostility. As Albert Einstein once said, â€Å"Harmony cannot be kept by force; it can only be achieved by understanding.† Singaporeans have to continue to build strong bonds in our community — bonds of friendship and understanding — to meet the challenges of the volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous global environment one faces today. Racial harmony is vital for peace, progress and prosperity in this multi-racial Nation. Through Racial Harmony Day,  Singaporeans can strengthen religious harmony through mutual tolerance and understanding. Singaporeans in turn will recognise the secular nature of our State, promote cohesion within our society and respect each other’s freedom of religion. As a nation, Singaporeans can then grow our common space while respecting diversity, foster interreligious communications, and thereby ensure that religion will not be abused to create conflict and disharmony in Singapore. Imperative is this celebration, as Singaporeans can assimilate and learn cultures and traditions of other races. This is paramount in avoiding misunderstandings and conflicts of different races and make our country a democratic society. So, what does the government do to promote racial harmony in our multi-ethnic society? Besides food tasting, games, homestays and the practice of donning ethnic costumes, a few key activities have been introduced to the Racial Harmony Day celebrations over the years. The practice of wearing orange ribbons – the colour symbolising racial harmony and intolerance towards racism – first began in 2001, when the Singapore History Museum (now known as the National Museum of Singapore) introduced it in a school. In addition, since 2008, OnePeople.sg has organised the Orange Ribbon Celebrations, a signature month-long event held every July, to commemorate racial harmony on a national level. The Government has also established Inter-Racial Confidence Circles (IRCC) and Harmony Circles in all our 84 constituencies to reach out to all Singaporeans in order to strengthen understanding and a shared sense of responsibility among Singaporeans of all races and religions. The IRCCs create opportunities for Singaporeans to explore and appreciate their differences and develop bonds among different ethnic and religious communities. They organise visits to the houses of worship of different religions. This fosters greater religious harmony between the different religious and ethnic groups. This can promote racial harmony in our society. In addition, more than 80 % of Singaporeans live in HDB flats. Living in multi-racial housing estates is a step towards forging a bond between the different racial groups in our society. As the various communities are brought closer together and share common facilities in the housing estates, it allows them to interact with and understand one another better. Living together in multi-racial housing  estates may also increase the likelihood of friction between different races. Hence, residents have to learn to live in harmony with one another.  Furthermore, government encourage schools to organise a range of cross-cultural activities for students during Racial Harmony Day, which may extend to become a weeklong event. Some of these activities include dressing up in ethnic costumes, sampling ethnic food and playing traditional games. Students also revisit the 1964 communal riots in different ways such as skits, talks and oral history accounts. Moreover, The National Heritage Board and its various museums took part in the Racial Harmony Day celebrations in 2001. Activities organised by the National Heritage Board included an exhibition at the National Archives titled â€Å"Living History: Tracing Our Customs and Traditions† and another exhibition at the Singapore Philatelic Museum, which explored Singapore’s ethnic cultures through stamps and postcards. We should not take our Singapore’s harmony for granted and should continue to flourish as a nation, regardless of our differences. Sallust, a roman historian, once said â€Å"Harmony makes small things grow. Lack of it makes great things decay.†

Results and Conclusion Paper Essay

Once these children had been selected, height and weight measurements were calculated and the children began enduring the tests. There were different tests for height, weight, sex and age brackets for the children. Also, body mass index (BMI) was figured out for the children. This method of data collection is appropriate for this article due to the fact that the problem is that there is too much childhood obesity in 9 and 10 year old children and the testing of children of all heights, weights and both sexes is a good way to figure out an average of just how much the average child is overweight. The reliability of this article is just that the tests were done over and over again during different parts of the years to show that the children’s body mass index differed very little. The validity of this article is that the testing was done on a wide enough group of children that the point was well proven. In this article and during the testing of the children, they were not run ragged or forced to do these tests. Sportslinx was the one to help find the children from the schools, the article does not state if there was any other type of protection or permissions for these children to attend the testing for this survey. In doing testing on a especially children, there are many laws that have to be followed. For one the children are minors, meaning that the people doing the testing have to have parent or guardian consent. If something were to happen to these children medically speaking the parent or guardian would have to be notified, and then be present at the time of the child’s treatment. Each child would then have HIPPA rights, as well as privacy rights if they were treated for medical reasons. For the testing each child would have the human rights as well as privacy rights. All of these have to be taken in to account due to the fact that the children are after all just little people. Qualitative and Quantitative Data Qualitative and quantitative data are very important in research studies. The distinctions between qualitative and quantitative is that qualitative is the quality of the research data, and quantitative is the quantity of the research data. The qualitative data in this research study is the fact that the study was done on children of multiple ages, both genders, different weights and multiple body mass indexes, (BMI), and put them through the same types of test continuously. This was done to get baseline readings for different types of situations, and multiple height weight ratios. The quantitative data in this research study was the fact that the study repeated the testing on the children year after year to continue the readings, and configure the data readings. With this being done this helps be more factual with what is happening per child rather than an estimation or an educated guess of what could possibly happen with each child. Data Analysis Procedures Data analysis procedures are important in research studies because they tell if the a sample is taken or if this research is done as a whole. In the event of this study research, the data analysis procedure is an inferential statistical analysis. â€Å"An inferential statistical analysis involves observation of a sample of a given population. Conclusions about the population are inferred from the information obtained about the sample† (Neutens & Rubinson, 2010). In the case of this research study, there is a sample of children that are taken from the population and are tested an observed. Conclusions are drawn after the testing is concluded, and the data is recorded. Study Findings/Study Conclusion The findings of the article were great. The findings were much different than what was expected. The body mass index, (BMI), of the children changed very ittle of the year with the testing, and the same activities. Their body mass index hit a plateau because the children got used to the routines that they were doing. Which in modern diet and exercise, this has been shown to happen, so this can be expected of the children. Now if their routines had changed every now and then maybe they would have had better results. In the case of this research study, it is hard to believe that these children were on very strict diets for this long. It is stated that the testing was done on a year to year basis. Children are constantly eating junk food and having soda, and many other things that they should not be having, and it is very hard to believe that they went without these types of things for this long, unless they lived in a facility for the entire time of the testing, which is not stated. For better testing results a better research study would have to be done. For this research study the participants would have to live on-site, in a facility that could house many people for over 30 days. The next thing that would have to be done, is that all of the participants would have to be on the same type of diet. IF the participants are allowed to eat whatever they like this defeats the purpose. Lastly, for a research study like this all of the participants would have to do the same amount of daily exercise. Within 30 days of the start date of the study there would be a change in the participants, many would notice weight loss, and some would even notice new muscle growth. If the test was elongated then the participants would notice more changes. The limits of the research study that was done limit the conclusion that can be made for future predictions. In Closing In closing there are many things that could have been differently to change the results of the research study that was done. Maybe there could have been better results and outcomes out of the study as a whole. Yet at the same time there were many results that came out of the study that was done, and this will still be able to help many children in the world now. Maybe in the future another study will be done with newer and more improved testing structures. Reference Neutens, J. J. , & Rubinson, L. (2010). research Techniques for the Health Sciences (4th ed. ). San Francisco, CA: Pearson Education.

Flexible Labor in Organizations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Flexible Labor in Organizations - Essay Example The increase in workload forces the employees to search for alternate options like flexible jobs. ‘48% of UK organizations offer flexitime to their employees compared to 90% in Germany, 94% in Sweden and 92% in Finland, and just 20% offer to telework compared to 44% in Germany and Sweden, 40% in Norway and 39% in Denmark.† (The UK’s flexible labor market may no longer be a source of competitive advantage) Flexible work is the option mostly the people are looking for because of the tight working schedules of regular work. Flexible labor has its own merits and demerits both for the organizations and the employees. Most people believe that flexible labor is going to be the future trend in organizations because of the immense benefits attached to it. â€Å"In the early 1970s, one in five American workers was employed by a Fortune 500 company; by the early 1990s, the ratio had dropped to one in ten† (Laubacher & Malone) Big organizations are no longer attractive to many employees because of the tight work schedule and lack of flexibility in work. Nowadays people are more conscious about the working environment rather than the salary alone. People are already living in a stressful world. Problems from family and society along with that from the workplace have made the life of an average person miserable. They wanted to reduce the stress level at any cost and flexible work is one option for reducing the job stress considerably. â€Å"Many observers believe that highly flexible organizational forms--often called networked organizations or virtual corporations--will become increasingly common in the future. Temporary networks of very small companies and independent contractors could undertake much of the work that is performed by large organizations today†Ã‚  

Therapeutic Approach Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Therapeutic Approach - Essay Example purpose of this paper, a 38 year old female client residing in the UK is considered and therefore the Diagnosis and therapy discussed are according to her needs. Before discussing different styles, it is helpful to mention therapy is time limited in nature ("Psychological and counseling,") that not every approach suits every patient. General public doesn’t know that psychology is a huge field and psychotherapy takes many forms. Often clients/patients feel dissatisfied after a session with a new psychotherapist. Afterwards, they blame psychological studies for their dissatisfaction. When the reality is that they might have met the right shrink (psychologist) but he/she used an approach that didn’t suit the client. Keeping that in mind, the imaginary patient used here is a 38 year old Cynthia, resides in England and suffers from chronic depression. Here are three approaches that can be used to diagnose and treat her. These therapies can be applied according to the response the patient is showing to the treatment. Cognitive therapy focuses on what people think rather than what they do (Encyclopedia of Psychology, 2013). This is a therapeutic approach where the practitioner tries to understand the thought pattern of the patient. Why is this important? Our world exists around us because we think (consciously & unconsciously) that it exists, we understand and accept that the environment around us exists and that leads to the human perception (or the other way around; perception is reality). Diagnosing Cynthia will require certain exercises such as asking her to note down her thoughts and feelings, before, during and after she has had a depressed phase. Writing down information will help the practitioner keep track of her thought cycle. This will be very effective in diagnosing the problem, i-e is Cynthia depressed for external reasons or is she only choosing to be depressed? Extending Cynthia’s hypothetical example, suppose she jots down she got depressed

Biography- Emily Greene Balch Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Biography- Emily Greene Balch - Essay Example For all her works as political activist, pacifist, political scientist, sociologist, social worker, and a leader of women social movements she might as well be given credit for the present right of women of suffrage and better labor conditions.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Emily Greene Balch, came from a wealthy family from Boston, Massachusetts. She was the daughter of a successful lawyer named Francis V., once a secretary to Senator Charles Sumner and Ellen Balch. She was born on January 8, 1867 and died on January 9, 1961 (Nobelprize, 1972). In 1946, she was given the Nobel Peace Prize for her lifetime of work and commitment to justice and peace. Working with the notable Jane Adams, also a pioneer in this discipline, they founded the Womens International League for Peace and Freedom (Nobelprize, 1972).      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Hers was a time of changes, especially when it came to views towards womens functions in the society.   It was during her time that the first batches of female graduated with college degrees. She, in fact, graduated in Bryn Mawr College with a Bachelors Degree in Arts Major in Greek and Latin in 1889. Apart from this, she was also given the highest award—European Fellowship for her exemplary moral character. She used this Fellowship award to study economics in Paris from 1890 to 1891 under the supervision of Émile Levasseur (Nobelprize, 1972). She went on to write Public Assistance of the Poor in France in 1893 in Paris. Driven by her natural devotion to learning, she continued her formal studies in the university of Chicago and Harvard to earn various courses. She went on to teach economics full time in Berlin from 1895 to 1896. Not long after this, she proceeded to Wellesley College and taught economics and sociology (Harvardsquarelibrary, 2008).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As a young girl, Miss Balch grew up in Jamaica Plain in Massachusetts

Peer review Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Peer review - Coursework Example why the University of Marion introduced the LessThanUThink campaign in order to sensitize students on the importance to focus on their studies rather than engage in irresponsible activities such as excessive alcohol consumption. The author should include the effects of alcohol on student performance and graduation rate. It is significant to note that as discussed in the proposal, the author gathered evidence from University students that they usually consume very large volumes of alcohol mostly during the weekends to get wasted. According to them, they do this for fun and an individual can end up guzzling up to over ten drinks in a night. However, this heavy drinking results in personal tragedy for college students and their families. Yes, the draft proposal persuades in the way the author has answered the problem of the proposal. The author has stated the reasons why the campaign was launched. The campaign in the University was successful since after the campaign was launched, it has assisted educate students when others engage in irresponsible drinking. There is no need for change or reorganization of the paper but the author should state the research design of the study and the methods they used to gather information about binge drinking in the University of Marion. The author was very keen and specific thus they avoided any form of repetitiveness. The most interesting part is the statistics about the past drinking behavior of students at the University of Marion. The statistics were shocking and needed immediate intervention to avoid further damage to the students and the reputation of the University. For example, I learned that about 25 percent of college students report academic consequences of their drinking including missing class, falling behind, doing poorly on exams or papers, and receiving lower grades

Statement of Cash Flows- Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Statement of Cash Flows- - Assignment Example The formula for the return on assets is Net income divided by total assets (BPP 2009). Market share _(c) A company's percentage share of total dollar sales within its industry. Working capital _ (d) Current assets less current liabilities. Price-earnings ratio _ (e) A measure reflecting investors' expectations of future profitability. The formula for the price-earnings ratio is price per share divided by earnings per share (EPS) (BPP 2009). Quick ratio _ (f) A measure of short-term solvency often used when a company has large inventories that cannot be quickly converted into cash. The formula for the quick ratio finds the total of all current assets with the exception of inventories and divides the result by the total of all current liabilities. This ratio is the acid test for short term solvency. It takes into consideration the cash cycle of turning inventory into cash, the fact that it may take a while before the inventory and the cash s received by way of cash sale or credit sale. Additionally, inventory can become obsolete. Earnings per share _ (g) A ratio that helps individual stockholders relate the net income of a large corporation to their equity investment.   The formula for earnings per share EPS is: Net income divided by number of issued shares. ... $163,000 + $96,000 = $259,000 (3) The current ratio: 1.5 to 1 i.e. the ratio of current assets to current liabilities - $388,000/259,000 = 1.5 (4) Net Working capital: $129,000 i.e. $388,000 - $259,000 (b) Assume that Red Missile Company pays the note payable of $163,000, thus reducing cash to $17,000. Compute the following after the completion of this transaction: (1) The current ratio: 2.34 to 1 – i.e. 225,000 ($388,000 – 163,000) divided by 96,000 ($259,000 – 163,000) Calculation of current assets: Cash ($180,000 - $163,000) $17,000 Accounts Receivable $84,000 Inventory $124,000 Current assets $225,000 Calculation of current liabilities: Accounts Payable $96,000 Current liabilities $96,000 (2) Net Working capital: $129,000  - i.e. current assets minus current liabilities – $225,000 - $96,000 3- Shown below are selected items appearing in a recent balance sheet of Grant Products. (Dollar amounts are in thousands.)   Ã‚   (a) Compute the following: (1 ) Total quick assets $2,770 and is calculated as follows: Calculations of Total quick assets: Cash and cash equivalents $620 Investments in marketable securities $300 Receivables $1,400 Prepaid expense and other current assets $450 Quick assets $2,770 (2) Total current assets $3,870 and is calculated as follows: Calculation of total current assets: Cash and cash equivalents $620 Investments in marketable securities $300 Receivables $1,400 Inventories $1,100 Prepaid expenses and other current assets $450 Current assets $3,870 (3) Total current liabilities $2200 i.e. $1,600 + $300 + $300 Calculation of current liabilities: Accounts payable $1,600 Bank loans payable within a year $300 Income tax payable $300 Total current liabilities

Linguistics and Media Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Linguistics and Media - Term Paper Example It is the short form or ellipsis of a word or phrase. It is also called initialisms: using the initials of the words and compressing it into short form, such as in the word LOL taking L from ‘laughing’, O from ‘out’, and L from ‘loud’. 2. Abbreviations: 1. f2t? : free to talk 2. cul8r: see you later 3. Ruok? = Are you ok? 4. Xlnt! = excellent 5. 2day: today 6. B4: before 7. thN: then/than The word formation process used here is pseudo-acronym. These appear as acronym or abbreviation but they actually are not and they do not stand for anything. They are used because, when pronounced as intended, they resemble the sounds of other words. They are words or initials used to give the sound of an entire word or phrase. Such as the words given above: Before = b4. B. Frames: In the excerpt, the main structuring frame is the semantic frame, it is a coherent structure of concepts; a word, idea or a concept cannot give meaning unless all elements of the str ucture are present (Gelbukh 307-312). The extract is a pep talk, an encouraging speech that motivates the people and congratulates them on choosing the right option for themselves and their country. The major points of the passage were conveyed in empathic tones, choosing to use ‘we’ rather than ‘I’, it emphasizes the importance of the people and that only by standing together they can overcome obstacles. It constructs a mental state of unity and importance in listeners Attributes and values of the frame: 1. Attributes: The attributes in this frame is the victory that is being celebrated which brings with it a lot of challenges also. 2. Values: The individual instantiation is the phrase â€Å"I have never been more hopeful than I am tonight† - it represents the individual symbolization of the attribute: the victory that comes with challenges, that the individual is hopeful that they can be solved C. Metaphors: A conceptual metaphor refers to understa nding one idea or concept with the help of another idea. An idea or thought is explained in terms of another, they are a way of communication and shape our way of thinking and acting. Conceptual metaphors have become a regular part of our communication. The American public is hungry for a national policy that is coherent and cohesive: The conceptual metaphor in this sentence is â€Å"hungry for† which shows want and need of the American Public and the extent and depth of their need. This expresses the ferocity of their need so that the reader has an acute idea of the profundity of their wish. Last week I was depressed, my spirits sank and I was really low. But my best friend has cheered me up since, and I am feeling up now: The cognitive or conceptual metaphor in this sentence is â€Å"spirits sank and I was really low. I am feeling up now† it is trying to express emotions in terms of directionality. The term low refers to being down, less, dejected, morose, depressed etc.; sank also assumes the same meanings. It shows the direction of his emotions that they are low or have sunk, meaning he is very depressed. Opposing low is up; which has a positive meaning or perception in the human mind, up depicts a state of growth, happiness, acceleration, betterment etc. so saying that I am up now means that I am feeling better or happier now. We launched this campaign not far from here on a beautiful June day. It has been an extraordinary journey. The metaphor is â€Å"it has been an extraordinary journey†; journey is a source domain in this sentence, the word from which we draw the

Competition And The Pan-Hellenic Identity Between The Greek Poleis Essay

Competition And The Pan-Hellenic Identity Between The Greek Poleis - Essay Example And so as people from elsewhere the world over struggled to consolidate governance under single, unified governments, the Greeks adopted liberalized forms of monarchies, oligarchies, democracies and/or tyrannies, with all systems of governance borrowing heavily from each other. With a background of the Bronze Age that had divided Greece into kingdoms, each with a demarcated territory and own kings claiming to rule under divine authority, the Greek’s Dark Ages destruction of the hitherto existing political order and the devolution of power to minor officials almost on a tribal structure heralded some form of freedom that the Greeks themselves weren’t prepared to give up for whatever reason, thus, the development of the city-states, or the poleis, as a fundamental political unit in the ancient Greek world (Budin 58). So important were the city-states and their newly acquired independence that even though each had independent governance structures, they all struck a workin g relationship that could help them ward off the conquest aspirations of other aggressive neighboring empires.  As the Greeks slowly emerged out of the dark ages, they expanded their world, developing unique versions of communal engagements within their spheres of influence, known as the polis. A polis was generally made up of a major city and the surrounding countryside lands as buffer zones. Typically, the polis was layered into two: the high city [acropolis] built on top of a hill, consisting of marble temples in honor of the different gods and goddesses, and the main city located on the flatter surfaces where market places, public buildings, and people’s homes existed. With populations that were much freer than their predecessors, the triumphs and defeats of the city states was fully the responsibility of the city dwellers, who went ahead to create social identities which differentiated each polis from all others.

Financial management Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Financial management - Term Paper Example By international standards, this indeed was a phenomenal growth. The balance sheets of commercial banks exhibited rapid increase during the entire eighties decade but started showing signs of slowing down in the first half of nineties as interest differences tended to taper off and banks started depending more and more on fees as their primary source of income. There was another tell tale sign of continuous increase in the size of the international financial superstructure and that was a marked increase in the volume of securities outstanding (mainly in the form of bonds and money market papers) in the total quantum of financial claims while there was an almost parallel decline in deposits and loans. However, what all analysts and financial experts preferred at that moment to turn a blind eye to was the increased specter of massive amounts of bad debts. Things were further complicated by the fact that while household sector balance sheets started exhibiting an increase in both assets and liabilities, there was a marked decline in deposits within gross household assets and an almost comparable increase in net financial wealth in the form of securities. (Blommestein 1996) This was possibly a direct offshoot of the remarkable innovativeness that was witnessed in the financial markets during this decade when one was overwhelmed by the sudden spurt in derivatives markets and advent of commercial papers in a very big way. Practically all forms of regulations and restrictions that were considered vital for maintaining stability in international financial markets were given a go by as almost all OECD countries abolished exchange controls. The banking sector also got rid of almost all forms interest rate controls and controls over credit expansion. The capitals markets also witnessed removal of controls over fees and commissions. In some countries, the existing

The Palestinian Question Essay Example for Free

The Palestinian Question Essay Introduction Moses, one time prince of Egypt turned escaped murderer, was tending his flock when one day he saw a ‘Burning Bush.’ The burning bush boomed with the voice of God and told him to â€Å"Lead my people out of Egypt, and deliver them to the land of Milk and Honey[1]† the land of Cannan. These famous anecdotes from the books of Exodus and Genesis are possibly two of the oldest and most definitive claims Israelites have to their lands. Ever since their independence in 1948 the state of Israel has weathered conflict after conflict against its Arab neighbor who would like nothing better than to see them driven into the sea. For instance, in the Yom Kippur War of 1973 a multi-national host from Egypt, Syria, Libya, Iraq, Jordan and many other Arab nations banded together to crush the fledgling state. The failure of these efforts to destroy Israel and the mutual hatred it has inspired has led to a severe refugee problem for the displaced Palestinian Muslims. To this day there are tens of thousands of Palestinians who hold themselves to have been driven from their homes and will not rest until they take it back. But to do so they must contend with an Israel that holds a thousands year-old claim on the realm. History of Palestine   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The land of Israel is located along the eastern shores of the Mediterranean. The land has changes names many times but since biblical times it have been a contentious territory. The Pharaoh’s armies passed through from Egypt to make war further west. Assyrian, Babylonian and Persian armies marched over Israel to make it to Egypt and beyond. Alexander’s Macedonians, and Caesar’s Romans also took Israel as just another part of their campaigns of world conquest. The Crusader braved thousands of leagues of hostile lands to make it to the land of Christ’s birth. War and bloodshed has been the fate of the land where three of the world’s major religions were born. The Land of Cannan Abraham, Isaac and Israel When Abram, a nomad from Ur, was asked by God to abandon his father’s lands and go east he began the migration that would eventually end with Abraham and Sarah living with honor among the Cannanites. God promised him that he would be his children would be as numerous as the stars and as plentiful as the sands in the beach. Yet he only had two sons Isaac  and Ishmael. Muslims, claim descent from Ishmael, while the Jews are the heirs of Isaac’s son Jacob who would later be known as Israel. Israel had twelve sons from whom the twelve tribes of Israel claimed descent. One of the youngest was sold to Egypt as slave. Joseph would soon be high in the favor of the Egyptian Pharaoh and would welcome his brothers to Egypt following a terrible famine that he had predicted. Since then the Hebrews and the Sons of Israel left Cannan and lived in Egypt. Moses and the book of Exodus After some time the Hebrews prospered in Egypt and soon became a worrying minority for the Pharaoh. He began one of the first pogroms against the Hebrews by oppressing them with more work and less rations. He murdered their children and ordered all male babies killed. However his persecution was to be his own bane, Moses was saved by his mother and eventually found his way to the gates of Pharaoh’s palace where he would be adopted by the Pharaoh’s daughter. Moses would later kill an Egyptian he saw oppressing a Hebrew slave. The shock of the murder would force him into exile in the Sinai  where he had his fateful encounter with the burning bush. As mentioned earlier it was there that God gave him his mission to free the Hebrews from their oppression and bring them back to Cannan where Israel and his sons abided before they came to Egypt.  After more than 40 years of wandering in the desert the Hebrews finally returned to Cannan under the leadership of Joshua. There they found the Cannanites, the Hittites, Amorites, Perizzites, Hivites and the Jebusites already living in relative peace for centuries. Ironically, when the Zionist Jews returned in the 20th Century they found Cannan in similar circumstances. Except that instead of biblical, possibly mythological tribes occupying it they found the grandfathers of the present day Palestinians. Jesus, the false Messiah and the Diaspora Jesus of Nazareth, the messiah of the Christian faith warned the people of Israel that a false messiah would come and lead them astray. He would show such signs as to make the people believe that he is indeed the messiah. This occurred in around 70AD when the Jews rose up in revolt. It was hopeless cause, we Nero finally found about the revolt he sent ordered several legions to suppress it. By the time of the fall of Jerusalem some 60,000 professional legionaries were in the Palestine suppressing the desperate Zealots. A later revolt in 135AD led to the complete annihilation of the Jewish state in Judea. The reign of Hadrian was especially tragic for the Jews because all Jews were exiled from Jerusalem and the other Palestinian cities. Many Jews were sold as slaves or transported as prisoners to other regions to joint other previously exiled Jews. Although most were accepted in the communities they were sent too, the Jewish people had ceased to exist as a political entity. Henceforth, they were merely small minority groups where ever they lived. Their lot was certainly better than the Christian Gentiles who often found themselves in the coliseum facing hungry lions. The Holy Land   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   With the rise of Christianity and Islam Palestine gained fresh importance. For the Christians this was the land where Jesus lived and began his ministry while the Muslims believed that the Mohammad ascended into heaven on the very same rock where Abraham tried to sacrifice his son Isaac. It was known as the Holy Land. Much blood would be shed by the Cross and the Crescent in the trials for its possession. The Crusades In1095 it was held by Muslims. Outraged Christian Europe under the leadership of Pope Urban II send a vast army against the Turkish Muslims. As an added incentive Poper Urban II promised that whoever died in the Crusades would receive immediate remission of their sins. The crusader army was successful. However, in their zeal against the Muslims they performed a large number of atrocities that are remembered to this day. For example, when Jerusalem was taken the Crusaders slaughtered the entire population.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Crusaders were successful in establishing several small Christian Kingdoms. However, these were tiny islands trapped in a sea of foes. Almost as soon as they were established, the Christian Kingdoms were attacked continuously by Muslim Jihadis leading to the fall of quite a few of them in rapid succession. The movie Kingdom of Heaven was about Saldin’s retaking Jerusalem and the dramatic extremes men of both faiths would go for the sake of possessing the Holy Land.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ultimately Three Major Crusades and several smaller ones were launched for the conquest of the Holy Land. For over a century Christian Europe bled itself white sending the flower of its chivalry to war in a hostile land with little hope of success. Yet just as the cause seemed hopeless thousands of young knights and noblemen gladly came forth in hopes of gaining glory in the name of their God. Saladin   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Saladin a Kurdish born Muslim noble  who ruled Egypt and later Syria  was like most Muslim ruler could not accept that infidel Christians were now lording over some of the holiest places of the Muslim faith. At first he was not strong enough to oppose the Crusaders because his hold on Egypt was still fragile and he was often at odds with neighboring Muslim states.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   After he had finally consolidated his hold on the Muslim world, Saladin would launch a bloody and often atrocious Jihad against the Christian Kingdoms. Atrocity was met with Atrocity, as the two faiths strove with each other for master of the Holy Land. For example, after the Battle of Hattin Saladin ordered all members of the Military orders such as Teutonic Knights and the Knights Templar beheaded on the spot  the Crusaders were no less cruel against Muslim prisoners. One example of their own cruelty was the practice of blinding Muslim prisoners allowing only every fifth man the use of one eye to lead the rest.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ultimately, the bloodshed ended with the terrible battles of the Third Crusade. There Richard Couer De Leon of England, Philip II of France and Conrad of the Holy Roman Empire led the vast armies of the Third crusade against Saladin. After many battles Richard and Saladin agreed to the Treaty of Ramala where Jerusalem would remain in Muslim hands but Christians would be free to go there on pilgrimages. The founding of Israel   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   After the Saladin, the Holy Land remained in Muslim hands for centuries. Saladin’s realm ended almost immediately after his death. Within a few short decades the Ottoman Turks were the new owners of Palestine. It was not until Lawrence of Arabia led his army of Arabian nomads to victory in World War I that the Ottoman’s were overthrown. However, instead of independence for the Arabs, the British took over Palestine and established their authority over them. Palestine in the early 20th century was a British territory populated by Arab Muslims. However an increasing trickle of Jews were arriving from all over the British Empire and the rest of the world. The Zionists were coming home. Zionist movement   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Named after Mt Zion were Jerusalem was built, Zionism is an international political movement for the creation of a homeland for the Jewish people in the Land of Israel. Also known as diaspora nationalism  It was formally established by Jewish Journalist Theodor Herzl in the late nineteenth century. The movement is highly successful having created the first and only modern jewish state in the world. These ultra-nationalistic Jews are the result of centuries of frustration of not having a home land and the discrimination they suffer all over the world at the hands of Christians, Muslims and others simply because they are a minority that has a different faith. Ironically, despites its origins as a movement to oppose racism and racial discrimination against Jews the U.N. has branded Zionism as a form of racism and racial discrimination    As mentioned earlier Zionism as a nationalist ideology arose as a response to anti-Semitism which was a form of heavy handed discrimination against Jews. For centuries, especially in the 19th and 20th Centuries the Jews had been victims of racial and religious discrimination. Christians persecuted them as the murders of Christ and forced them to convert. In fact, one of the prayers of the old Latin mass is a missive for the conversion of Jews. Communists also persecuted them for being true to their faith in when a communist state was supposed to be one that was free from religion which was the opiate of the masses.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   At heart the Zionists justified themselves as being one distinct nationality unified by their faith. Seeing other minorities in Europe struggle for self-determination emboldened them to seek for a home land of their own. After all, if the European minorities were entitled to a free country of their own why not the Jews?.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The first congress of Basel in 1897  was the meeting where the major agitators behind Zionism met for the first time and formally established the World Zionist Organization. At that congress the Basel Program was completed and its manifesto provided that; Zionism seeks to establish a home for the Jewish people in Israel secure under public law. To attain this goal they set about on four programs; first, the promotion by appropriate means of the settlement in Israel of Jewish farmers, artisans and manufacturers. Second, the organization and uniting of the whole of Jewry by means of appropriate institutions, both local and international, in compliance with the laws of each country, third the strengthening and fostering of Jewish national sentiment and national consciousness, foruth, preparatory steps towards obtaining the consent of governments, where necessary in order to reach the goals of Zionism.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   However, there was little interest in the rest of the world for the sake of the Jews. The world simply did not care. It was not until Hitler unleashed the Holocaust upon the helpless Jews that international sympathy for Zionism catalyzed into actual action. After World War Two’s horrors more and more Jews came to Palestine in fulfillment of Zionism’s goals. There they found the land much as Joshua’s Hebrew found it. Full of Palestinians who were occupying land that, they felt, rightfully belong to the Jews. 1948 War   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   By 1947 the tension between the Jews and Arabs had reached fever pitch. The Jews were naturally interested in self-propagation and often held themselves apart from the Arabs when they could. They did not hire Arab workers if they could find help among other Jews. Their settlers were increasing in number and quite soon were a significant bloc of the population. The UN mandated that separate enclaves for Jews and Arabs would be created within Palestine in order to lessen the friction between the two groups. The Zionist leadership accepted the partition plan as the indispensable minimum, glad as they were with the international recognition, but sorry that they didnt get more. Unfortunately the arbitrary partition was the spark for an already explosive situation. Thousands of Jews and Palestinians were displaced by the mandatory and arbitrary partition.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Stage was set for war. The Zionists were ready, they had trained both under British rule and in underground camps for the day when they would have to fight for independence. Despite the tiny population of the fledgling Jewish state thousands of Jewish men and women formed a committed fighting force under the aegis of the Yishuv, all told some 35,000 Jews took up the cudgels for independence although only about 10,000 of these were actually fit for frontline duty. They also had the elite Palamch commandos to spearhead their attacks. The Palamach and its wartime exploits   After the defeat of the Arabs in Palestine, the entire Arab World was stirred to wrath. Quoting the ancient victories of Saladin against the marauding Crusaders, the Arabs united to crush these new usurpers of their Holy Land. Like the Crusaders of old the young state of Israel was faced with a tide of foes many times their number and driven to fanaticism by their common faith. It went down to a test of wills, on who wanted the Holy Land more. The Arabs, driven with Jihadi fanaticism were determined to overthrow the Jews from the Holy Land. The Jews, had nowhere else to go. Ultimately, with a combination of superior tactics and training, not to mention the internal squabbling between the Arab leaders, the Jews prevailed. For the first time since the days of Rehoboam son of Solomon son of David, the Children of Israel had a land of their own independent and free.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Unfortunately it would not be the end of its struggles. Israel would face wave after wave of invaders from its Neighbors who simply refused to accept their existence in Palestine. Nevertheless, they stood their ground and have staunchly defended their territories ever since.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   They were also not above launching preemptive strikes, In 1967 After much saber rattling by their enemies, especially Egypt the Israeli government became convinced that war was eminent. Rather then be attacked again the Israeli’s struck first. Led by the formidable Hel HaAvir, the Israeli air force, The Israelites began the Six-Day war. The Egyptian, Syrian and Jordanian forces were utterly defeated. By the end of the fighting Israel stretched from Suez Canal in the East to the Golan Heights in the west effectively trebling their land area. One of the most significant results of the war was that Israel now controlled all of Jerusalem.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Simply, put after centuries of frustration and discrimination, the Zionist movement had come of age. Despite many trials and set backs they succeed in bringing the Jews home. Verily, every Jewish family in Israel can look to its past and claim that a relative fought heroically in defense of Israel in one of the many wars of the Arab-Israeli conflict. Invested with generations of blood and suffering, and mandated by God himself. The Israelis are loath to concede so much as an inch of their territory to those who would take it from them. In fact, every Israeli soldier, whether elite commando, foot solider or simply citizen reservist, takes an oath â€Å"Masada (the ancient fortress where the last Jewish freedom fighters died resisting the Romans) shall not fall†. By their vigilance it has not fallen. The Palestinian Dilemma   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The story of the Israeli struggle for self-determination spans centuries. It makes for dramatic reading. However, the events have left a certain group of people in a lurch. The Palestinians who originally held the territory before the Israelites arrived. Dispossession of Palestinian settlers after 1948 Al Nakba (The Catastrophe) The years following the 1948 conflict are known as the lost years. Disorganized Palestinian militias were no match for the determined and well trained Yishuv forces. Many former Palestinian enclaves fell under the power of the Jews. The few that remained free of Jewish domination were taken over by Syria, Lebanon and Egypt. Having just fought a blood civil war with their Jewish neighbors the Palestinians were bitter and resentful. There was little love between the two people. Many chose to flee or were driven away by the Israelis as both were unwilling to abide with each other. However, by the 1950s a new generation of Palestinians formed nationalist groups that were organized clandestinely gathering strength before revealing themselves in the 1960s. The original Palestinian elite who had negotiated with the British and the Zionists during the mandate years were held accountable of Palestine and were replaced by these groups. Many members of these groups came from the middle-class who recently graduated from universities in Cairo or Damascus and imbibed in the ideals of Pan-Arabism put forth by Nasser.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The humiliation of Nasser and his movement during the Six Day war further dimmed the hopes of the Palestinians. Not only had the Arab armies failed to liberate Palestine from the Jews but they lost even more territories and the Palestinians were further displaced. With many of their organizations in ruins and the people once again exiled from their homes, the Palestinians pinned their hopes of on the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Palestinian people are a point of consternation for the Israeli because before the arrival of the Jews and their independence in 1948 there really was, in their opinion, no Palestinian state or Palestinian people just a group of settlers from various other Arab regions Golda Meir herself said; It was not as though there was a Palestinian people in Palestine considering itself as a Palestinian people and we came and threw them out and took their country away from them. They did not exist.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   With such an attitude from a former head of state it is no wonder that Israel is loath to deal with the Palestinians as anything more than a refugee problem. Simply, put the Israelis believe that the only reason the Palestinians banded together was in opposition to the Zionists. Even their text books are written in such a way as to disavow a unique Palestinian identity. The books describe them as Arabs in the land of Israel instead of calling them Palestinians.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The refugee problem is aggravated by the refusal of other Arab countries to accept the Palestinian refugees. Rather than welcome their fellow Muslims the Arabs have forced the Palestinians to remain marginalized and desperate for a land to call their own. In summary the heart of the problem is a refusal of the Israeli state to grant the same right to self-determination that they claimed for themselves in 1948. Worsened by a refusal of the Arabs to grant asylum to the Palestinians. As a result the Palestinians are increasingly desperate and with national governments unwilling to offer help they have turned to terrorist groups like Al-Quaeda. Palestine Today   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The United Relief Works Agency estimates that there are just under 4.5 Million  Palestinian refugees. They are defined as those â€Å"whose normal place of residence was Palestine between June 1946 and May 1948, who lost both their homes and means of livelihood as a result of the 1948 Arab-Israeli conflict†. Given that many of these are dead by now the number is made larger by the inclusion of those who were born to people in such circumstances.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Many Palestinians live in abject poverty, they are discriminated by the Israelis who will often hire them at below mandated wages. The numerous terrorist organizations who recruit from Palestinians have created a heavy suspicion on all of them. Virtually every Palestinian is seen as a potential terrorist or suicide bomber. Two major rebellions and the failure of the Palestinian Authority to address problems ranging from Peace and Order to wages of PA employees have made the people even more frustrated and desperate. Is it then any wonder that many young Palestinians would rather strap on bombs on their bodies and blow themselves up to kill a few Jews instead of living lives of drudgery and disenchantment? III. Analysis â€Å"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.† Begins the Universal Declaration of Human rights. The International Covenant for Civil and Political rights offers this rejoinder â€Å"All peoples have the right of self-determination. By virtue of that right they freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development.† It is regrettable that these rights are denied to The Palestinian people. Unfortunately, these rights are extreme difficult to implement given the geo-political structure of Israel today. As late as 2006 the Palestinian Terror group known as Hezzbollah was firing rockets into Israel causing random destruction of property and lives. They also kidnapped several Israeli solider and killed others in surprise attacks and raids. The Israelis reacted by attacking Lebanon. Palestinians are treated with suspicion where ever they go within Israel’s borders. The Palestinian Authority, already questionable to the Israeli was completely discredited by the death of Yasser Arafat and the lack of a worthwhile successor. Worse, the conflict has since spread to far beyond the border’s of Palestine. Part of Bin-Laden usually inflammatory spiels is to remind the Muslim world that the U.S. has been sponsoring the Zionist state of Israel and that without their aid the Israeli state would long be gone. Harkening to the mass airlift of supplies the U.S. made to Israel during the Yom Kippur. As a result the Israeli affair has become a cassus belli for Muslims to legitimize their attacks on those who seek to support Israeli. An older example of this was the Oil embargo that OPEC pulled back in 1973 when it was obvious that the Arabs were losing the Yom Kippur War. However, this support of Israel is not the only grief the Arab world has against the U.S. they are called the Greater Satan for more reasons. Among them are the invasion of Afghanistan, Somalia and more recently Iraq all in pursuit of their self-proclaimed mandate as protectors of the free world. Sovereignty, International perspective One of the most critical arguments about the Israeli – Palestinian conflict is the issue of Sovereignty over Palestine. Naturally, the two sides have almost completely diametrically opposed interpretations of events with respect to this. The 1920 San Remo conference was held between the British, the Zionists and the Arab settlers of Palestine and was done mostly to ease rising tensions with respect to the Jews mass immigration. The Jews hold the the San Remo conference explicitly granted them the mandate for a Jewish homeland in Palestine. As a result, their claims are valid not only by de facto, since by the end of 1948 they controlled the land by force of arms, but also de jure by virtue of the treaty. Jewish legal experts also believe that Israel had the right to sovereignty over the territories since Jordan and Egypt had no clear legal sovereignty over those areas and the Israel, acting in self defence, was entitled to enter those regions to fill the vacuum.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Naturally, the Arabs hold that the San Remo conference conferred no such right to the Jews. Not only did it not offer them sovereignty but it also did not identify which parts of Palestine were going to be subject to this alleged Jewish Home land. To further their point they also insist on the right to self-determination of national groups which has long been recognized under international law. The same right enshrined in Art 1 of the ICCPR   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In addition, most Arabs and Israelis agree that the armistice line of 1949 is not a valid international border. Both groups also agree that a two state solution is best to end the conflict between the Israli and Palestinian people. The two states will be demarcated by the 1949-1967 armistice lines. This would provide the best solution because the Palestinian authority has been an abject failure. It was never strong enough to assert itself over the average Palestinian citizen and was plagued with problem from the beginning. The fact that its civilian authority was often over shadowed by Israeli military garrisons did not help its credibility.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The international consensus it that the Annexation of the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem is illegal and should not be recognized under international law. The occupation of the West Bank and Gaza strip has the status of an illegal occupation because they were conquered via force of arms and against the will of the populations Also, the people were rendered stateless by the attacks and the Israeli’s put the territory under military rather than civilian administration.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   After the Six-Day war the UN stepped in with UN resolution 242. Adopted unanimously, it called for the Establishment of a just and lasting peace in the Middle East which was to be achieved by following two principles; First, the Withdrawal of Isreali forces territories occupied in the conflict and second, termination of all claims or states of belligerency. Also included were respect for the of every state in the region to live in peace within secure and recognized borders. All state parties in the Six day war agreed, in principle,   to UN Res 242 with the exception of Syria which granted it conditional acceptance in 1972   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   However, the state of belligerency remained deeply rooted amongst the Arabs. The heads of Arab states adopted their own resolution in a conference held at Khartoum, in September 1967. The famous three Nos; no recognition of the Israeli conquests, and no negotiations and most importantly no recognition of the Israeli state. Conclusion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Israel fought long and hard to achieve independence. For centuries they were a down trodden minority oppressed and discriminated upon by their neighbors. However, it would appear that they are doing to the Palestinians exactly the same thing they endured. By forcing the Palestinians to remain stateless and poor they are driving them to desperate ends.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A war for to conquer Israel is out of the question, time and time again the IDF has shown itself a competent army. The oath â€Å"Masada shall not fall† burns in the heart of every Israeli tanker and reservist, they are determined never again to be conquered by force of arms. Short of nuclear weapons no Arab army will defeat the Jews in battle. The Yom Kippur war is the best expression of this, despite the element of surprise the Arabs were ultimately defeated by an Israel surrounded and with little more than moral support from the outside world. The best solution to the problem would be simply to allow the Palestinians true autonomy under Palestinian leaders. After all the right to self determination is guaranteed by the UDHR and the ICCPR. The cost of securing the Palestinian enclaves is a drain on Israeli manpower and finances. Letting them live their lives on their own is going to be best course of action. By granting them true independence the Palestinians would only have themselves to blame if they failed and this would take the wind of the â€Å"Freedom!† slogan being sold them by terror groups. With out the justification of, allegedly, liberating the Palestinians from the Oppressive Jews Islamic extremists would lose much of their popular support in Palestine for their terror attacks   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Israel has been recognized by her neighbors only recently, although her armies are competent, this does not mean she can run roughshod over her neighbors. By ridding itself of the legal monkey known as the Palestinian Question it would unburden itself of unneeded pain. The Palestinians enclaves are enclaves precisely because they are territories that Israel and her neighbors care little for. With the possible exception of the Gaza Strip, losing the territories the Palestinians hold would be a small loss. There is plenty of room in Israel for her Seven Million citizens. After all, did not Israel make the desert bloom?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   For the Arabs, they must match their talk with action. They bleed for the Palestinians yet more aid comes to them from working illegal jobs in Israel than from humanitarian aid from their Arab brothers. Arab countries rich with oil could certainly provide subsidies to help the Palestinians get back on their feet if they are granted independence. If Bin Laden can afford to spend millions to fund his terror initiatives why can’t the Arab states spare a little of its petrol money to help their Muslim brothers? Is not Charity part of the Muslim commandments? References The book of Exodus 3:7-8 in Holy Bible The Good News Bible in Today’s English Version 1978 Book of Genesis in Holy Bible The Good News Bible in Today’s English Version 1978 http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/urban2-5vers.html#Fulcher (Last accessed 14 Dec 07) Fulcher of Chartres, Medieval Sourcebook. Available at http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/urban2-5vers.html#Fulcher (Last accessed 14 Dec 07) Vladimir Minorsky, The Prehistory of Saladin, Studies in Caucasian History, Cambridge University Press, 1957, Malcolm Lyons and D.E.P. Jackson, Saladin: The Politics of the Holy War United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3379 session 30 on 10 November 1975 Arjun, Sethi Zionism The British in Palestine January 2007, available at http://fusion.dalmatech.com/%7Eadmin24/files/zionism_in-britishpalestine.pdf (Last accessed 12 Dec 07 The Basle Program. Resolutions of the First Zionist Congress available at http://www.mideastweb.org/basleprogram.htm (last accessed 10 Dec 07) Morris, Benny (2001). Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881-2001. El-Nawawy, Mohammed (2002), The Israeli-Egyptian Peace Process in the Reporting of Western Journalists, Ablex/Greenwood, Gelber, Yoav. Palestine 1948. WAr, Escape and the Emergnece of the Palestinian Refugee Problem. Sussex Academic Press. (2006) Karsh, Efraim. The Arab-Israeli Conflict. The Palestine War 1948. Osprey Publishing. (2006) Khalidi, Rashid (1997). Identity:The Construction of Modern National Consciousness. New York, NY: Columbia University Press p 190 Cooley, John K Green March, Black September, Frank Cass, London 1973 pp.196f Zionist Aspirations: Dr Weizmann on the Future of Palestine, The Times, Saturday, 8 May, 1920 Weizmann â€Å"The missing Revisoner: reflections on the Status of Judea and Samaria† 3 Israel law review (1968) Blum, Yehuda, â€Å"The Juridical Status of Jerusalem† (1974) United Nations Security Council Resolution 497 (December 17, 1981), about the Golan Heights. United Nations Security Council Resolution 478 (August 20, 1980), about East Jerusalem. United Nations Security Council Resolution 242 (S/RES/242) Hinnebusch, Raymond A.; Drysdale, Alasdair. Syria and the Middle East Peace Process. New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, (1991)   See Exodus 3:7-8 in Holy Bible The Good News Bible in Today’s English Version 1978 See Genesis 12:1-2 in Holy Bible The Good News Bible in Today’s English Version 1978 See Genesis 21:1-8 in Holy Bible The Good News Bible in Today’s English Version 1978 See Genesis 16:1-114 in Holy Bible The Good News Bible in Today’s English Version 1978 Genesis 46:1-33 in Holy Bible The Good News Bible in Today’s English Version 1978 Exodus 1:8-16 in Holy Bible The Good News Bible in Today’s English Version 1978   Exodus 2:1-8 in Holy Bible The Good News Bible in Today’s English Version 1978 Exodus 2:11-16 in Holy Bible The Good News Bible in Today’s English Version 1978   Exodus 3:7-8 in Holy Bible The Good News Bible in Today’s English Version 1978   Fulcher of Chartres, Medieval Sourcebook. Available at http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/urban2-5vers.html#Fulcher (Last accessed 14 Dec 07)   Vladimir Minorsky, The Prehistory of Saladin, Studies in Caucasian History, Cambridge University Press, 1957, pp. 124-132. Malcolm Lyons and D.E.P. Jackson, Saladin: The Politics of the Holy War p 2   Beha ad-Din, The Life of Saladin, pages 278-281   Gellner, Ernest. Nations and Nationalism (First edition), p 107-108.   United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3379 session 30 on 10 November 1975   Arjun, Sethi Zionism The British in Palestine January 2007, available at http://fusion.dalmatech.com/%7Eadmin24/files/zionism_in-britishpalestine.pdf (Last accessed 12 Dec 07 The Basle Program. Resolutions of the First Zionist Congress available at http://www.mideastweb.org/basleprogram.htm (last accessed 10 Dec 07) l-Nawawy, Mohammed (2002), The Israeli-Egyptian Peace Process in the Reporting of Western Journalists, Ablex/Greenwood, p 1-2   Morris, Benny (2001). Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881-2001. p 190   Gelber, Yoav. Palestine 1948. WAr, Escape and the Emergnece of the Palestinian Refugee Problem. Sussex Academic Press p. 73, also; Karsh, Efraim. The Arab-Israeli Conflict. The Palestine War 1948. Osprey Publishing. (2006) , p. 25.   Khalidi, Rashid (1997). Identity:The Construction of Modern National Consciousness. New York, NY: Columbia University Press p 190 Cooley, John K Green March, Black September, Frank Cass, London 1973 pp.196f Art 1 UDHR ICCPR Art 1 Zionist Aspirations: Dr Weizmann on the Future of Palestine, The Times, Saturday, 8 May, 1920; p. 15.   3 Israel Law Review p190 All peoples have the right of self-determination. By virtue of that right they freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development United Nations Security Council Resolution 497 (December 17, 1981), about the Golan Heights. United Nations Security Council Resolution 478 (August 20, 1980), about East Jerusalem.   Hinnebusch, Raymond A.; Drysdale, Alasdair. Syria and the Middle East Peace Process. New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, (1991) p 105

Difference Between Murder And Manslaughter

Difference Between Murder And Manslaughter The prosecution must prove beyond all reasonable doubt Woolmington [1935] that the defendant committed the offence (actus reus) and also had the necessary state of mind for committing the offence (mens rea). Murder is the intention to kill or cause grievous harm. The actus reus of murder is if the act committed is intentional, unlawful and is the main cause of death. In Alfs case this is setting fire to Petes house. For Alf to be legally responsible, the prosecution must provide evidence that Alfs act was the factual and legal causation of Veras death. Factual causation can be acknowledged by asking was the defendants act a cause in fact of specified consequence.  [2]  This can be answered by asking But for what the defendant did would the consequence have occurred? If the answer is no, causation in fact is recognized. The But for test makes it easier to determine factual causation between Alfs act of setting Petes house on fire and Veras death. The question in court should be Wo uld Vera die if Alf had not set the house on fire? In R v White [1910]  [3]  prosecution failed to establish factual causation. In this case, if Alf had not set the house on fire, Vera would not have died. Meaning factual causation can be recognized. Legal causation has to be established to be able to take legal action. It uses concepts of blameworthiness, liability and expectation to select the most suitable. R v. Pagett (1983)  [4]  talks of legal causation, as the defendant did not fire the weapon that killed his girlfriend. However he was held liable as the most culpable in the actions leading to her death. Alfs actions need not be the individual cause of Veras death as anothers act may have contributed; it must a substantial and operating cause of death. Jo saw the fire moments after it started and chose not to call for help and Olly could not help as he forgot the ladders. The defendant will not lawfully have caused the particular outcome if there was a novus actus interveniens sufficient to break the legal chain of causation. This can be an act of the victim, third party or an unpredictable natural event. The outcome of the intervening must be so overwhelming that the defendants attack is reduced in importance. In Alfs case, Jo and Olly do not break the chain of causation as their actions are not overwhelming causes for Alf not to be liable. R v Cheshire (1991)  [5]  shows that not all events following the defendants act will break the chain of causation. The mens rea for murder is the mental element the intention to kill or cause dangerously bodily harm. Alfs case outlines that it was not his intention to cause harm, nevertheless was aware of a risk of harm. The mens rea necessary is intention. It is the highest level of mens rea and separates in two areas direct and oblique. Direct intention is when the defendant desires an outcome and their goal is to accomplish it. Oblique intention is when the defendant has a purpose in mind but in achieving that also causes other outcomes that were not desired. Nedrick [1986]  [6]  is like Alfs case. The Nedrick test has objective and subjective perspectives. The objective part would ask if Alf foresaw the death of Vera as a virtual certainty and was he aware that his act could cause harm. The subjective part would ask if Alf foresaw Veras death as a virtual certainty. Even though Alf was aware of the possibility of causing harm, he would not have significant intention if he did not foresee death as a virtual certainty, as he intended a different outcome to what took place. Therefore Alfs intention was oblique as he did not want to kill or cause anyone any harm his intention was to frighten Pete into leaving Sandra alone. Hancock and Shankland (1986)  [7]  the House of Lords indicated that the likelihood of the consequence taking place was something to take into consideration in determining whether there was enough facts from which intention might be inferred. The two miners were convicted of manslaughter and not murder as their intention was to frighten and not kill. Alfs intentions were to frighten Pete not to kill him. However, in contrast with Hancock and Shankland, Alf was aware of the likelihood of harm but the two miners were not. Recklessness takes an inexcusable risk, having two levels subjective and objective. Subjective recklessness is where the defendant realises there is a risk but chooses to take it nonetheless R v G [2004]  [8]  . Objective recklessness is where a sensible person realises there is a risk R v Caldwell [1982]  [9]  . However, a person is still guilty even when mentally unable to realise the risk. Alf shows subjective recklessness by not chekingif the house was empty, and is aware of the possibility of someone getting injured, but still pours the paraffin through the letter box and starts the fire. In Hyam v. D.P.P (1975)  [10]  , the issue before the House of Lords was whether or not the mens rea necessary for murder, was established when the defendant was aware of the high probability that her act would result in death or serious bodily harm. In both the Nedrick (1986  [11]  ) and the Hyam v. D.P.P (1975  [12]  ) cases the defendants were behaving recklessly Alf comm itted an act which was against the law, dangerous and was aware of the risks of harm. The two types of manslaughter are, voluntary and involuntary. In this case, Alfs actions were voluntary. Two specific defences which apply to Alfs case are provocation and diminished responsibility. Provocation was a common law defence prior to the Homicide Act 1957 defined by Delvin J in R v Duffy [1949]  [13]  Provocation is some act, or series of acts, done to the accused which would cause in any reasonable person, and actually causes in the accused, a sudden and temporary loss of self- control, rendering the accused so subject to passion as to make him or her for the moment not master of his mind.  [14]  Section 3 of the Homicide Act 1957 lengthened on this providing that Where on a charge of murder there is evidence on which a jury can find that the person charged was provoked (whether by things done or by things said or by both together) to lose his self- control, the question whether provocation was enough to make a reasonable man do as he did shall be left to be dete rmined by the jury; and in determining that question the jury shall take into account everything both done and said according to the effect which, in their opinion, it would have on a reasonable man.  [15]  This requires the prosecution to prove all elements of murder. There are three elements of provocation; firstly there must be some provocative conduct, secondly there must be a cause to make defendant lose self-control and thirdly if the loss of self control occurs, a reasonable person would also have lost self-control and act in the same way. In Alfs case the facts do not point to any evidence that he was provoked. Alf was profoundly depressed and acted in anger after hearing Sandra was dating Pete. However setting fire to Petes house was not an act performed in the heat of the moment, which would have overcome a reasonable man. Therefore provocation is highly improbable to win if used as a defence. Diminished responsibility is a defence simply statutory. Section 2 (1) of the Homicide Act 1957 states Where a person kills or is a party to the killing of another, he shall not be convicted of murder if he was suffering from such abnormality of mind (whether arising from a condition of arrested or retarded development of mind or any inherent causes or induced by disease or injury) as substantially impaired his mental responsibility for his acts and omissions in doing or being a party to the killing.  [16]  If Alf uses this defence he will not be successful, as he was not suffering from abnormality of mind. The burden is o n the defendant to prove their defence on the balance of probabilities R v Dunbar [1957]  [17]  . In R v Bryne [1960]  [18]  , Lord Parker CJ described an abnormality of mind as a state of mind that the reasonable person would find abnormal Alf can argue he was suffering from depression, as the news of Sandras relationship with Pete caused mental distress and use insanity as a defence. This defence can apply to Alf; however he would have the burden of proving his mental state and that his depression affected his reasoning. According to the MNaghten rules it must be proved that, when the offence was committed, the defendant was under defect of reason, evolving from mental illness, so not knowing the nature and quality of the act committed, or, if he did, not knowing that what he was doing was wrong. If this is the case then Alf will not be held responsible due to insanity. I think it most likely that Alf will be charged with reckless manslaughter, as his intention was not to kill or harm, but to frighten Pete. When setting Petes house on fire he does so in a state of depression and on realising that Vera is inside he immediately changes his mind and runs into the burning house and tries to save her. If Olly had brought t he ladders the tragic death of Vera could have been avoided. There are three different offences of committing involuntary manslaughter, constructive, gross negligence and reckless manslaughter. The case states that Jo is a neighbour and a family friend who notices the fire moments afterwards but does nothing about it. The law does not impose a duty on a public bystander to help or save a person in danger. In order to establish negligence for manslaughter a higher degree of care or relationship is required, even though Jo omitted to call for help she did not owe the victim a duty of care. In R v Stone and Dobinson [1977]  [19]  , they allowed an ill sister to live in their house; she died after they failed to call for medicinal help. They both had a duty of care as they were her primary carer, both charged with manslaughter by gross negligence. The duty can be breached if at any time a risk of injury to health is foreseen R v Stone and Dobinson [1977]  [20]  . If Jo had created a danger which could cause harm to anyone then she would ha ve a duty however this is not the case the fire therfore has not duty to act. Such duty arises from special relationships such as, parent child Gibbins Proctor (1918)  [21]  , a contractual duty Pittwood (1902)  [22]  , an official position Dytham (1979)  [23]  . Jos decision not to act can be considered to be morally wrong but this does not make it a criminal liability. Jo could be convicted of involuntary reckless manslaughter. The case states fireman Olly and his crew turn up to the scene but cannot help as they have forgotten to bring any ladders. The House of Lords in R v Adomako [1994]  [24]  decided that to establish the gross negligence form of manslaughter the prosecution must prove a duty of care a breach of the duty of care and gross negligence. Olly has a duty as a fire man is to save lives and prevent harm to others he breached duty by being negligent in failing to be adequately prepared and failed to carry out his duty by being unable to get to the victim. In the case of Pittwood (1902)  [25]  a railway crossing keeper omitted to close the gates resulting in a person crossing getting hit and killed by a train. The keeper had a contractual which was breached as he was negligent. Bateman (1925)  [26]  states that negligence is gross when it is beyond a matter of mere compensation between subjects and showed such disregard for the life as safety of others as to amount to a crime against the State and conduct deserving of punishment  [27]  Olly was negligent as he did not bring the ladders that could have saved Veras life. Olly could be charged of manslaughter by gross negligence for failing to provide duty of care and breaching his contractual duty.

Identify How Employees Resist To Organizational Change Management Essay

Identify How Employees Resist To Organizational Change Management Essay The purpose of this paper is to review recently published research to identify how employees resist to organizational change and which change strategies could be used in order to minimize employee resistance to organizational change. In the literature review it is discussed why employees show resistance to change. Communication and Participation are selected for discussion as significant change strategies after identifying various other change strategies that can be adopted by the organization to minimize the level of resistance. At the end of this seminar paper, the limitations of this study are discussed and recommendations are made for future researches. Keywords: Organizational Change, Change strategies, Employee Resistance, Introduction Organizations today are facing more changes than ever before (Conner, 1992, cited in Wanberg and Bans, 2000). As they strive to more competitive edge, they are reorganizing, downsizing, focusing on incremental changes and radical changes through the implementation of new technologies. The success rate of change initiatives is dependent on diverse number of obstacles. Among them the main obstacle to organizational change achievement is human resistance. Employees reactions to change are considered critical for the success of change effort (Piderit, 2000). Bovey and Hede (2001) cited numerous studies including one of 500 Australian organizations indicating resistance as the most common problem faced by management in implementing change. Despite this claim that it is difficult for the individuals to cope the change that is why they try to resist. Human resistance may be the main hurdle in the success of organizational change. Researchers and practitioners have been working on employee r esistance to organizational change from the decades. But they may be defining the phenomenon inconsistently and studying it incompletely. It has been reported that resistance is likely to occur because the change process involves moving form known to unknown (Coghlan, 1993; Steinburg, 1992; Myers and Robbins, 1991; Nadler, 1981, cited in Bovey and Hede, 2001). Each individual resist the change in a different manner, it is important to assess how individuals resist changing and why so that manager could select an appropriate way to overcome resistance (Kotter and Schlesinger 1979). Much of the organizations face difficulties with employee resistance. Successfully managing resistance is one of the major challenges faced by change initiators and is the more important aspect of change process. Different researcher proposed different change strategies that would help in successfully implementing change process and could also be helpful in minimizing employee resistance to change. Focus of this study is to identify different change strategies and to highlight those change strategies that play major role in minimizing much of the resistance by the employees. Problem Statement In support of organizational change practice, this study attempts to answer the question: Which change strategies are most helpful in minimizing employee resistance to change? .Scope of Study Much of this paper will cover how employees resist to organizational change and which change strategies are most beneficial in minimizing the employee resistance in the course of change implementation. The goal of this paper is to provide change agents and managers with the theoretical insight to employee resistance to organizational change and practical guidance in dealing and ultimately minimizing employee resistance to organizational change, based on previous research. Literature Review Resistance to Change Change is defined as a move from the present current state to some desired future state and a denial to that movement is said to be the resistance. The studies discussed under this subject suggest a comprehensive definition of employee resistance to organizational change. Resistance to change is a concept explaining why efforts to organizational change fall short of expectations and usually fail. The word Resistance is always considered a negative connotation. Organizational change often incurs two types of responses: positive or negative, supportive and resistant etc. Resistance is mainly due to the fact that key interests of employees get at risk during the change process. The key concerns of the individuals upon the announcement of the change that may affect resistance to change may include threats and benefits of change, personal capabilities to accomplish change (Dennis G. Erwin Andrew N. Garman, 2009).Dianne and Amrik (1998) explained resistance to change has been recognized a s an important factor that can influence the success or failure of organizational change effort. Resistance if not properly handled leads towards the failure of the organizational change. So resistance is defined as the negative employee attitude with counter-productive behaviors. Resistance among employees arises because of the negative feelings they have about the change and these negative feelings arise because all the information regarding change process is not properly communicated to them by the management themselves, their only source of information is either word of mouth or local newspapers. So because of these sources of information a feeling arise in them that management itself is not very clear about the change and its objectives and as a result this causes them to resist (Tony proctor Ioanna Doukakis 2003). Change Strategies Kotter and Schlesinger (1979) identified six strategies to organizational change such as Education, Participation, Facilitation, Negotiation, Manipulation, and Coercion. Education means informing and communicating the desired changes and giving reasons for them. Participation is to involve the potential resisters and even employees in designing change plan and implementing change. Facilitation is a process that includes training employees in new skills and giving them emotional support by listening to them. Negotiation is offering incentives to potential resisters. Manipulation means involving the selective use of information and conscious structuring of events. And finally coercion is basically forcing people to accept change and threatening them. Focus of this study to identify those strategies that play a major role in minimizing employee resistance to change. Out of Kotter and Schlesinger (1979) mentioned strategies, communication and participation will be the focal point here. Purpose is to study the role of these two strategies (Communication and participation) in minimizing employee resistance to change. These strategies as factors of change process influence individual attitudes and resistances toward change. Communication Different researchers defined the concept of change communication differently. For example, Kotter and Schlesinger (1979) defined communication as informing and communicating the desired changes and giving reasons for them. According to Lewis (2006), Communication about the change is dissemination of information that is the dispersal of knowledge, ideas, training, facts and respects or directives of action concerning the change. Oreg (2006) defined communication as the amount and quality of information that is provided to employees about the change. Van Dam et al. (2007) defined communication as providing information about the change is to keep employees knowledgeable of anticipated events such as specific changes that will occur, the consequences of the changes and new roles of the employees. Effective communication is the main reason for the success of organizations as it helps the managers to get employees involved in the particular task of change and thus helping them in implementing change successfully (Mary Welch Paul R. Jackson, 2007). It has been suggested that inadequate information leads to more uncertainty about specific changes because it will give rise to feelings such as how change will affect their job and organization or how to respond to that change (Milliken, 1987, cited in Wanberg Banas, 2000). It has been proposed that in order to improve employees attitude towards organizational change, information about the change helps to reduce employee anxiety and uncertainty (K.I. Miller Monge, 1985; Schweiger DeNisis, 1991, cited in Wanberg Banas, 2000). Lewis (2006) defined that communication is critical in the process of creating and articulating vision; channeling feedback between implementers, key decision makers, and key users; providing social support; forestalling and constructive use of resistance and assessing and promoting results. Study of Lewis describes how employee experience communication of change messages; the types of channels they use to communicate with implementers; and finally the qualities of implementers change communication that employees associated with the change outcomes. Employees perceive the communication about the change differently than do implementers themselves. Implementers usually have clear idea about the change process as they themselves the change agents whereas employees have lesser knowledge about the change program, formal goals and progress of the change. Participation Kotter and Schlesinger (1979) defined participation is a process to involve the potential resisters and even employees in designing change plan and implementing change. Lewis (2006) defined participation as employees cooperation during the change initiatives is the key to success to organizational changes. It has been argued that participation lead to qualitatively better strategic decision (Kim and Mauborgne, 1998, cited in Lines, 2004). Giangreco and Peccei (2005) reported that more participation of employees in change process is associated with more positive attitudes towards the change and it will minimize resistance to change. Wanberg Banas (2000) proposed that higher level of participation in the change process is related to more positive view of the change. Higher level of involvement is associated with a view that changes are beneficial. Lewis (2006) explained that Participatory structures in organization that value the input of participants and that allow them opportunities to influence decision making are more likely to succeed in reaching the desired goals. So, employees who feel that they have more participatory opportunities and the organization value their inputs are more likely to adopt the change process and are less likely to observe resistance to change. Lack of participatory involvement of employees in change process will predict more resistance to change. The more the employee input is valued and is allowed to participate in the change process, the less will be the resistance. Lines (2004) studied the influence of participation on resistance to change. Lines identified a strong relationship exists between employee perceptions of their participation in change process and reduced resistance to change. Lines defined participation as involvement of employees in the initial assessment and development of change plan. Lines suggested that participation allows more interaction between the change agents and change recipients who will help them to overcome their resistance to change. Lines concluded that use of participation will lead towards successful implementation of change. Van Dam at el (2007) reported that participation of employees in the change planning and implementation process increases the change acceptance. Participation often offers number of benefits: such as increased understanding of the circumstances that make change necessary and a sense of ownership and control over the change process increases the readiness for change. Van Dam et al. found a significant relationship between resistance to change and change strategies such as communication and participation. Dianne and Amrik (1998) reported that participation of employees in change process is the best method of handling resistance. It has been suggested that involving employees in learning, planning and implementation stages of the change process tends to increase employee commitment to change and will ultimately lowers the resistance to change (Lewin, 1991; Coch French, 1948, cited in Dianne Amrik, 1998). Employees must be given the opportunity to be involved in every aspect of change process and they must be given the opportunity to provide feedback. Involving management and employees in the change process will help to overcome many of the difficulties experience during the change process. Discussion Literature indicated a significant relationship between change strategy communication about the change, participation of employees in change process and employee resistance to change. If there is higher level of communication about the change process, there will be lesser employee resistance to change. If the employee tends to participate in the change process, there will be lesser resistance to change. After going through the above literature it is established that the communication as a change strategy helps in minimizing resistance to change. Resistance to change can be minimized by informing about the change and providing reasons for change (Kotter and Schlesinger 1979). Communicating about the change, its consequences and new roles of the employees will play a positive role in minimizing resistance to change (Van Dam at el 2008). Effective communication helps in minimizing resistance to change by involving employees in the change process and implementing it (Mary Welch Paul R. Jackson, 2007). Minimal information about the change process results in uncertainty and ambiguity. Individuals being uncertain and ambiguous about the change process will incorporate ideas that how change will affect them, their department and their organization and how to respond to change, such feelings usually give rise to resistance to change so adequate information about the change facilitates lowering the level of resistance to change (Milliken, 1987, cited in Wanberg Banas, 2000). (K.I. Miller Monge, 1985; Schweiger DeNisis, 1991, cited in Wanberg Banas, 2000) develop a connection between flow of information and acceptance level of employees in a way that sufficient level of information increase the level of acceptance among employees which in turn decreases the resistance. Lewis (2006) examined a relationship between communication of the change and employee resistance to change. Lewis found that communication of change influences the resistance to change and if the employees receive more information about the change, there will be less resistance to change. Participation of employees in the change process in one way or other assists managers to overcome the resistance. One way is the involvement of employees in the change process that has significant effect on individuals attitudes towards the change itself, which in turn directly influence their reactions to change. Individuals who are more involved in change process will have positive attitudes towards change, so they will react to it in less negative way (Giangreco and Peccei 2005). Wanberg Banass study in 2000 also supported the above mentioned findings. Lewis (2006) proposed that if employees are not allowed to participate in change process, they might feel that their opinions and suggestions are not wanted and valued. So they will actively resist change. According to Van Dam at el (2007) participation offers certain benefits to employees which minimize the level of resistance by the employees. Dianne and Amrik (1998) study reveals that the participation increases the level of commitment among employees and decreases their level of resistances towards a particular change. Limitations of Study This study is limited to reviewing previously published research involving employee resistance to change and change strategies which will help in reducing employee resistance to organizational change. Study focused on two major change strategies: communication and participation and their relationship with the employee resistance to change. Impact of these strategies (communication and participation) is studied on employee resistance to change unilaterally meaning that resistance is considered only a single dimension concept. Future Research Present study focused solely on the relationship between change strategies (communication and participation) and employee resistance to change as a one-dimensional concept. Oreg (2006) found that not enough information, as well as too much information about the change may be detrimental and can increase employees resistance. He suggested that moderate amount of information about the change would be optimal when introducing organizational change. So, future research could be done in order to identify the contexts and processes in which information can reduce the resistance instead of enhancing it. As there are other strategies of change such as Facilitation, Negotiation, Manipulation, and Coercion which also play a role in minimizing resistance to change. Facilitation will help overcome the resistance when people are fearful and anxious about the change. Negotiation helps deal with resistance when people are losing through the change and they have enough power to influence the change process. So offering them incentive will help defuse their major resistance. Manipulation is helpful in resisting change by co-optation i.e. involving an individual in design or implementation of change. It is relatively easier, quicker and cheaper solution to the problem Future research could further explore the relationship between these strategies and employee resistance to change. -à Ãƒâ€˜Ãƒâ€™ ÑÒ ÑÒà  -